This is bovine.info, produced by makeinfo version 7.0.3 from
bovine.texi.

Copyright © 1999–2004, 2012–2025 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

     Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this
     document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License,
     Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software
     Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, with the Front-Cover Texts
     being “A GNU Manual,” and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a)
     below.  A copy of the license is included in the section entitled
     “GNU Free Documentation License”.

     (a) The FSF’s Back-Cover Text is: “You have the freedom to copy and
     modify this GNU manual.”
INFO-DIR-SECTION Emacs misc features
START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY
* Bovine: (bovine).             Semantic bovine parser development.
END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY


File: bovine.info,  Node: Top,  Next: Starting Rules,  Up: (dir)

Bovine parser development
*************************

The “bovine” parser is the original Semantic parser, and is an
implementation of an LL parser.  It is good for simple languages.  It
has many conveniences making grammar writing easy.  The conveniences
make it less powerful than a Bison-like LALR parser.  For more
information, *note Wisent Parser Development: (wisent)Top.

   Bovine LL grammars are stored in files with a ‘.by’ extension.  When
compiled, the contents is converted into a file of the form
‘NAME-by.el’.

   Copyright © 1999–2004, 2012–2025 Free Software Foundation, Inc.

     Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this
     document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License,
     Version 1.3 or any later version published by the Free Software
     Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, with the Front-Cover Texts
     being “A GNU Manual,” and with the Back-Cover Texts as in (a)
     below.  A copy of the license is included in the section entitled
     “GNU Free Documentation License”.

     (a) The FSF’s Back-Cover Text is: “You have the freedom to copy and
     modify this GNU manual.”

* Menu:

* Starting Rules::              The starting rules for the grammar.
* Bovine Grammar Rules::        Rules used to parse a language.
* Optional Lambda Expression::  Actions to take when a rule is matched.
* Bovine Examples::             Simple Samples.
* GNU Free Documentation License::  The license for this documentation.


File: bovine.info,  Node: Starting Rules,  Next: Bovine Grammar Rules,  Prev: Top,  Up: Top

1 Starting Rules
****************

In Bison, one and only one nonterminal is designated as the “start”
symbol.  In Semantic, one or more nonterminals can be designated as the
“start” symbol.  They are declared following the ‘%start’ keyword
separated by spaces.

   If no ‘%start’ keyword is used in a grammar, then the very first is
used.  Internally the first start nonterminal is targeted by the
reserved symbol ‘bovine-toplevel’, so it can be found by the parser
harness.

   To find locally defined variables, the local context handler needs to
parse the body of functional code.  The ‘scopestart’ declaration
specifies the name of a nonterminal used as the goal to parse a local
context.  Internally the scopestart nonterminal is targeted by the
reserved symbol ‘bovine-inner-scope’, so it can be found by the parser
harness.


File: bovine.info,  Node: Bovine Grammar Rules,  Next: Optional Lambda Expression,  Prev: Starting Rules,  Up: Top

2 Bovine Grammar Rules
**********************

The rules are what allow the compiler to create tags from a language
file.  Once the setup is done in the prologue, you can start writing
rules.

     RESULT : COMPONENTS1 OPTIONAL-SEMANTIC-ACTION1)
            | COMPONENTS2 OPTIONAL-SEMANTIC-ACTION2
            ;

   RESULT is a nonterminal, that is a symbol synthesized in your
grammar.  COMPONENTS is a list of elements that are to be matched if
RESULT is to be made.  OPTIONAL-SEMANTIC-ACTION is an optional sequence
of simplified Emacs Lisp expressions for concocting the parse tree.

   In bison, each time an element of COMPONENTS is found, it is
“shifted” onto the parser stack.  (The stack of matched elements.)  When
all COMPONENTS’ elements have been matched, it is “reduced” to RESULT.
*Note (bison)Algorithm::.

   A particular RESULT written into your grammar becomes the parser’s
goal.  It is designated by a ‘%start’ statement (*note Starting
Rules::).  The value returned by the associated OPTIONAL-SEMANTIC-ACTION
is the parser’s result.  It should be a tree of Semantic “tags”.

   COMPONENTS is made up of symbols.  A symbol such as ‘FOO’ means that
a syntactic token of class ‘FOO’ must be matched.

* Menu:

* How Lexical Tokens Match::
* Grammar-to-Lisp Details::
* Order of components in rules::


File: bovine.info,  Node: How Lexical Tokens Match,  Next: Grammar-to-Lisp Details,  Up: Bovine Grammar Rules

2.1 How Lexical Tokens Match
============================

A lexical rule must be used to define how to match a lexical token.

   For instance:

     %keyword FOO "foo"

   Means that ‘FOO’ is a reserved language keyword, matched as such by
looking up into a keyword table.  This is because ‘"foo"’ will be
converted to ‘FOO’ in the lexical analysis stage.  Thus the symbol ‘FOO’
won’t be available any other way.

   If we specify our token in this way:

     %token <symbol> FOO "foo"

   then ‘FOO’ will match the string ‘"foo"’ explicitly, but it won’t do
so at the lexical level, allowing use of the text ‘"foo"’ in other forms
of regular expressions.

   In that case, ‘FOO’ is a ‘symbol’-type token.  To match, a ‘symbol’
must first be encountered, and then it must ‘string-match "foo"’.

*Caution:*
     Be especially careful to remember that ‘"foo"’, and more generally
     the %token’s match-value string, is a regular expression!

   Non symbol tokens are also allowed.  For example:

     %token <punctuation> PERIOD "[.]"

     filename : symbol PERIOD symbol
              ;

   ‘PERIOD’ is a ‘punctuation’-type token that will explicitly match one
period when used in the above rule.

*Please Note:*
     ‘symbol’, ‘punctuation’, etc., are predefined lexical token types,
     based on the “syntax class”-character associations currently in
     effect.


File: bovine.info,  Node: Grammar-to-Lisp Details,  Next: Order of components in rules,  Prev: How Lexical Tokens Match,  Up: Bovine Grammar Rules

2.2 Grammar-to-Lisp Details
===========================

For the bovinator, lexical token matching patterns are _inlined_.  When
the grammar-to-lisp converter encounters a lexical token declaration of
the form:

     %token <TYPE> TOKEN-NAME MATCH-VALUE

   It substitutes every occurrences of TOKEN-NAME in rules, by its
expanded form:

     TYPE MATCH-VALUE

   For example:

     %token <symbol> MOOSE "moose"

     find_a_moose: MOOSE
                 ;

   Will generate this pseudo equivalent-rule:

     find_a_moose: symbol "moose"   ;; invalid syntax!
                 ;

   Thus, from the bovinator point of view, the COMPONENTS part of a rule
is made up of symbols and strings.  A string in the mix means that the
previous symbol must have the additional constraint of exactly matching
it, as described in *note How Lexical Tokens Match::.

*Please Note:*
     For the bovinator, this task was mixed into the language definition
     to simplify implementation, though Bison’s technique is more
     efficient.


File: bovine.info,  Node: Order of components in rules,  Prev: Grammar-to-Lisp Details,  Up: Bovine Grammar Rules

2.3 Order of components in rules
================================

If a rule has multiple components, order is important, for example

     headerfile : symbol PERIOD symbol
                | symbol
                ;

   would match ‘foo.h’ or the C++ header ‘foo’.  The bovine parser will
first attempt to match the long form, and then the short form.  If they
were in reverse order, then the long form would never be tested.


File: bovine.info,  Node: Optional Lambda Expression,  Next: Bovine Examples,  Prev: Bovine Grammar Rules,  Up: Top

3 Optional Lambda Expressions
*****************************

The OLE (“Optional Lambda Expression”) is converted into a bovine
lambda.  This lambda has special short-cuts to simplify reading the
semantic action definition.  An OLE like this:

     ( $1 )

   results in a lambda return which consists entirely of the string or
object found by matching the first (zeroth) element of match.  An OLE
like this:

     ( ,(foo $1) )

   executes ‘foo’ on the first argument, and then splices its return
into the return list whereas:

     ( (foo $1) )

   executes ‘foo’, and that is placed in the return list.

   Here are other things that can appear inline:

‘$1’
     The first object matched.

‘,$1’
     The first object spliced into the list (assuming it is a list from
     a non-terminal).

‘'$1’
     The first object matched, placed in a list.  I.e., ‘( $1 )’.

‘foo’
     The symbol ‘foo’ (exactly as displayed).

‘(foo)’
     A function call to foo which is stuck into the return list.

‘,(foo)’
     A function call to foo which is spliced into the return list.

‘'(foo)’
     A function call to foo which is stuck into the return list in a
     list.

‘(EXPAND $1 NONTERMINAL DEPTH)’
     A list starting with ‘EXPAND’ performs a recursive parse on the
     token passed to it (represented by ‘$1’ above.)  The “semantic
     list” is a common token to expand, as there are often interesting
     things in the list.  The NONTERMINAL is a symbol in your table
     which the bovinator will start with when parsing.  NONTERMINAL’s
     definition is the same as any other nonterminal.  DEPTH should be
     at least ‘1’ when descending into a semantic list.

‘(EXPANDFULL $1 NONTERMINAL DEPTH)’
     Is like ‘EXPAND’, except that the parser will iterate over
     NONTERMINAL until there are no more matches.  (The same way the
     parser iterates over the starting rule (*note Starting Rules::).
     This lets you have much simpler rules in this specific case, and
     also lets you have positional information in the returned tokens,
     and error skipping.

‘(ASSOC SYMBOL1 VALUE1 SYMBOL2 VALUE2 ...)’
     This is used for creating an association list.  Each SYMBOL is
     included in the list if the associated VALUE is non-‘nil’.  While
     the items are all listed explicitly, the created structure is an
     association list of the form:

          ((SYMBOL1 . VALUE1) (SYMBOL2 . VALUE2) ...)

‘(TAG NAME CLASS [ATTRIBUTES])’
     This creates one tag in the current buffer.

     NAME
          Is a string that represents the tag in the language.

     CLASS
          Is the kind of tag being create, such as ‘function’, or
          ‘variable’, though any symbol will work.

     ATTRIBUTES
          Is an optional set of labeled values such as ‘:constant-flag t
          :parent "parenttype"’.

‘(TAG-VARIABLE NAME TYPE DEFAULT-VALUE [ATTRIBUTES])’
‘(TAG-FUNCTION NAME TYPE ARG-LIST [ATTRIBUTES])’
‘(TAG-TYPE NAME TYPE MEMBERS PARENTS [ATTRIBUTES])’
‘(TAG-INCLUDE NAME SYSTEM-FLAG [ATTRIBUTES])’
‘(TAG-PACKAGE NAME DETAIL [ATTRIBUTES])’
‘(TAG-CODE NAME DETAIL [ATTRIBUTES])’
     Create a tag with NAME of respectively the class ‘variable’,
     ‘function’, ‘type’, ‘include’, ‘package’, and ‘code’.

   If the symbol ‘%quotemode backquote’ is specified, then use ‘,@’ to
splice a list in, and ‘,’ to evaluate the expression.  This lets you
send ‘$1’ as a symbol into a list instead of having it expanded inline.


File: bovine.info,  Node: Bovine Examples,  Next: GNU Free Documentation License,  Prev: Optional Lambda Expression,  Up: Top

4 Examples
**********

The rule:

     any-symbol: symbol
               ;

   is equivalent to

     any-symbol: symbol
                 ( $1 )
               ;

   which, if it matched the string ‘"A"’, would return

     ( "A" )

   If this rule were used like this:

     %token <punctuation> EQUAL "="
     ...
     assign: any-symbol EQUAL any-symbol
             ( $1 $3 )
           ;

   it would match ‘"A=B"’, and return

     ( ("A") ("B") )

   The letters ‘A’ and ‘B’ come back in lists because ‘any-symbol’ is a
nonterminal, not an actual lexical element.

   To get a better result with nonterminals, use , to splice lists in
like this:

     %token <punctuation> EQUAL "="
     ...
     assign: any-symbol EQUAL any-symbol
             ( ,$1 ,$3 )
           ;

   which would return

     ( "A" "B" )


File: bovine.info,  Node: GNU Free Documentation License,  Prev: Bovine Examples,  Up: Top

Appendix A GNU Free Documentation License
*****************************************

                     Version 1.3, 3 November 2008

     Copyright © 2000, 2001, 2002, 2007, 2008 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
     <https://fsf.org/>

     Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
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  0. PREAMBLE

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     This License is a kind of “copyleft”, which means that derivative
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     It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft
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     We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for
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     Document, and any Warranty Disclaimers, provided that you also
     include the original English version of this License and the
     original versions of those notices and disclaimers.  In case of a
     disagreement between the translation and the original version of
     this License or a notice or disclaimer, the original version will
     prevail.

     If a section in the Document is Entitled “Acknowledgements”,
     “Dedications”, or “History”, the requirement (section 4) to
     Preserve its Title (section 1) will typically require changing the
     actual title.

  9. TERMINATION

     You may not copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute the Document
     except as expressly provided under this License.  Any attempt
     otherwise to copy, modify, sublicense, or distribute it is void,
     and will automatically terminate your rights under this License.

     However, if you cease all violation of this License, then your
     license from a particular copyright holder is reinstated (a)
     provisionally, unless and until the copyright holder explicitly and
     finally terminates your license, and (b) permanently, if the
     copyright holder fails to notify you of the violation by some
     reasonable means prior to 60 days after the cessation.

     Moreover, your license from a particular copyright holder is
     reinstated permanently if the copyright holder notifies you of the
     violation by some reasonable means, this is the first time you have
     received notice of violation of this License (for any work) from
     that copyright holder, and you cure the violation prior to 30 days
     after your receipt of the notice.

     Termination of your rights under this section does not terminate
     the licenses of parties who have received copies or rights from you
     under this License.  If your rights have been terminated and not
     permanently reinstated, receipt of a copy of some or all of the
     same material does not give you any rights to use it.

  10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

     The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of
     the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time.  Such new
     versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may
     differ in detail to address new problems or concerns.  See
     <https://www.gnu.org/licenses/>.

     Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version
     number.  If the Document specifies that a particular numbered
     version of this License “or any later version” applies to it, you
     have the option of following the terms and conditions either of
     that specified version or of any later version that has been
     published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.  If the
     Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may
     choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free
     Software Foundation.  If the Document specifies that a proxy can
     decide which future versions of this License can be used, that
     proxy’s public statement of acceptance of a version permanently
     authorizes you to choose that version for the Document.

  11. RELICENSING

     “Massive Multiauthor Collaboration Site” (or “MMC Site”) means any
     World Wide Web server that publishes copyrightable works and also
     provides prominent facilities for anybody to edit those works.  A
     public wiki that anybody can edit is an example of such a server.
     A “Massive Multiauthor Collaboration” (or “MMC”) contained in the
     site means any set of copyrightable works thus published on the MMC
     site.

     “CC-BY-SA” means the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0
     license published by Creative Commons Corporation, a not-for-profit
     corporation with a principal place of business in San Francisco,
     California, as well as future copyleft versions of that license
     published by that same organization.

     “Incorporate” means to publish or republish a Document, in whole or
     in part, as part of another Document.

     An MMC is “eligible for relicensing” if it is licensed under this
     License, and if all works that were first published under this
     License somewhere other than this MMC, and subsequently
     incorporated in whole or in part into the MMC, (1) had no cover
     texts or invariant sections, and (2) were thus incorporated prior
     to November 1, 2008.

     The operator of an MMC Site may republish an MMC contained in the
     site under CC-BY-SA on the same site at any time before August 1,
     2009, provided the MMC is eligible for relicensing.

ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents
====================================================

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of
the License in the document and put the following copyright and license
notices just after the title page:

       Copyright (C)  YEAR  YOUR NAME.
       Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
       under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.3
       or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
       with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover
       Texts.  A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ``GNU
       Free Documentation License''.

   If you have Invariant Sections, Front-Cover Texts and Back-Cover
Texts, replace the “with...Texts.” line with this:

         with the Invariant Sections being LIST THEIR TITLES, with
         the Front-Cover Texts being LIST, and with the Back-Cover Texts
         being LIST.

   If you have Invariant Sections without Cover Texts, or some other
combination of the three, merge those two alternatives to suit the
situation.

   If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we
recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free
software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit
their use in free software.



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Node: Grammar-to-Lisp Details6428
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